Notes: Administrative vs. Critical Approaches….
In contrast to functionalist approaches (application of scientific methodologies, focus on individualism, belief that society is structural and maintained through rules and regulations that organize relationships), critical theory—a critical sociological approach in contrast to earlier, positivistic approaches–developed. In order to understand critical research, we need to take account of various contextual elements (historical, political, economic, organizational, professional and personal). Critical approaches argue that:

–research does not take place in a vacuum

–it offers a critique of ‘conventional research’ (defined as value-free, positivistic, psychological, empiricist)

–it criticizes the Western dominance of mass communication research

–it critiques administrative research while offering alternatives

Critical theory posits that:
–all aspects of the communication process should be studied (which in turn impinge on ownership controls, production, structure, etc.), in contrast to use, reaction, effects, influence theories

–communication should be considered as a social process

–media institutions should be studied in relationship to other institutions

Emergence of Critical Research in the 1960s-1970s

A response to Lazerfeld’s administrative research (see Hamilton chapter) which for many US scholars has been the dominant paradigm for years…

Frankfurt School and translation of Antonio Gramsci and Louis Althusser

International communication issues important:
–globally: 100+ new nations Post WWII – neocolonialism, Third World, developing nations, non-aligned movement…

“Information Age”
–changes in economy & labour force; production > service industries
–commodification of information
–intensification of advertising and marketing
–information industry

Some areas critical researchers address:

1) production of information outputs vs. consumption of media products

2) the various sources & exercising of power, especially related to communication processes & information flow

3) a strong awareness of history, & awareness of continuous changes in social processes & institutions

Criticisms of critical theory
…it is narrow and negative
…it is dull and negative
…it is ethically unclear & politically unrealistic
…it opposes empirical research
…it is too concerned with media ownership
…critical researchers are biased
…they are too political & too Marxist
…they have an ardor for commitment
…critical research is unscientific
…it is is seduced by big words and trendy words
…it avoids measurement, over-generalizes

OTOH…
Critical research is diverse and innovative
…it examines varied questions with diverse methods
…it seeks alternative models
…it emphasizes issues not addressed in administrative/behavioral research
…examinations are conducted in wide social, economic, & political context
…it favours change & social transformation

Dallas Smythe (1984) – contends that critical research should engage at 3 levels:

1) International–through theories & practices of revolutionary & ‘liberation’ movements; policy & structures of spectrum (radio, telecom); transnational corporations (TNCs); Third World initiatives.

2) National–political economy of new technologies; advertising and commodity relationships; manipulation of public opinion.

3) Community neighborhood (local)–communication systems with union & labour movement, women’s groups, ethnic groups, etc.

The same can be said now…

Dallas Smythe also argued for that critical research should engage in public advocacy:

1) demystication of science and technology
2) relationship between theories & practice (praxis)
3) decentralization of the control of communications
4) democratization of communications institutions & practices
5) mass mobilization for organization & action
6) promoting communications for peace

For Further Reading

Everett M. Rogers, History of Communication Studies, Free Press, 1997.

Martin Jay. The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research, 1923-1950, University California Press revised edition, 1996.